Exibir código-fonte para Intermediate Grammar Project: UCI


This is my work on Intermediate Grammar Project from University of California.

== Past Participle ==

The form of a verb, typically ending in -ed in English, which is used in forming perfect and passive tenses and sometimes as an adjective, e.g. looked in "have you looked"?, lost in "lost property".<ref>https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/past_participle</ref>

For regular verbs, we normally add "ed" to form its past participle. Unfortunately for irregular verbs there are no rules and it is just a matter of practice.<ref>http://www.grammar.cl/Notes/Past-Participles.htm</ref>

List of common irregular verbs: <ref>https://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/grammar/unreg_verben.htm</ref>

{|
!style="text-align:left;"| Verb
!style="text-align:left;"| Past Participle
|-
|be||been
|-
|beat||beaten
|-
|become||become
|-
|begin||begun
|-
|bet||bet
|-
|blow||blown
|-
|break||broken
|-
|bring||brought
|-
|build||built
|-
|burst||burst
|-
|buy||bought
|-
|catch||caught
|-
|choose||chosen
|-
|come||come
|-
|cost||cost
|-
|cut||cut
|-
|deal||dealt
|-
|do||done
|-
|draw||drawn
|-
|drink||drunk
|-
|drive||driven
|-
|eat||eaten
|-
|fall||fallen
|-
|feed||fed
|-
|feel||felt
|-
|fight||fought
|-
|find||found
|-
|fly||flown
|-
|forget||forgotten
|-
|freeze||frozen
|-
|get||got, gotten 
|-
|give||given
|-
|go||gone
|-
|grow||grown
|-
|hang||hung
|-
|have||had
|-
|hear||heard
|-
|hide||hidden
|-
|hit||hit
|-
|hold||held
|-
|hurt||hurt
|-
|keep||kept
|-
|know||known
|-
|lay||laid
|-
|lead||led
|-
|leave||left
|-
|lend||lent
|-
|let||let
|-
|lie||lain
|-
|light||lit
|-
|lose||lost
|-
|make||made
|-
|mean||meant
|-
|meet||met
|-
|pay||paid
|-
|put||put
|-
|read||read
|-
|ride||ridden
|-
|ring||rung
|-
|rise||risen
|-
|run||run
|-
|say||said
|-
|see||seen
|-
|sell||sold
|-
|send||sent
|-
|set||set
|-
|shake||shaken
|-
|steal||stolen
|-
|shine||shone
|-
|shoot||shot
|-
|show||shown
|-
|shut||shut
|-
|sing||sung
|-
|sink||sunk
|-
|sit||sat
|-
|sleep||slept
|-
|slide||slid
|-
|speak||spoken
|-
|spend||spent
|-
|spring||sprung
|-
|stand||stood
|-
|stick||stuck
|-
|swear||sworn
|-
|sweep||swept
|-
|swim||swum
|-
|swing||swung
|-
|take||taken
|-
|teach||taught
|-
|tear||torn
|-
|tell||told
|-
|think||thought
|-
|throw||thrown
|-
|understand||understood
|-
|wake||woken
|-
|wear||worn
|-
|weave||woven
|-
|win||won
|-
|write||written
|}

== Present Perfect ==

This tense is formed by have/has + the past participle.<ref>https://www.grammarly.com/blog/present-perfect-tense/</ref>

The present perfect is used to indicate a link between the present and the past. The time of the action is before now but not specified, and we are often more interested in the result than in the action itself.<ref name="ef-present-perfect">http://www.ef.com/english-resources/english-grammar/present-perfect/</ref>

Some examples extracted from ef website: <ref name="ef-present-perfect"></ref> 

* Actions started in the past and continuing in the present: 

# They haven't '''lived''' here for years.
# She has '''worked''' in the bank for five years.
# We have '''had''' the same car for ten years.
# Have you '''played''' the piano since you were a child?

* When the time period referred to has not finished: 

# I have '''worked''' hard this week.
# It has '''rained''' a lot this year.
# We haven't '''seen''' her today.

* Actions repeated in an unspecified period between the past and now: 
# They have '''seen''' that film six times
# It has '''happened''' several times already.
# She has '''visited''' them frequently.
# We have '''eaten''' at that restaurant many times.

* Actions completed in the very recent past (with just): 

# Have you just '''finished''' work?
# I have '''just''' eaten.
# We have just '''seen''' her.
# Has he just '''left'''?

* When the precise time of the action is not important or not know: 

# Someone has '''eaten''' my soup!
# Have you '''seen''' 'Gone with the Wind'?
# She's '''studied''' Japanese, Russian, and English.

== Present Perfect Progressive ==

The present perfect continuous tense (also known as the present perfect progressive tense) shows that something started in the past and is continuing at the present time. The present perfect continuous is formed using the construction '''has/have been + the present participle (root + -ing)'''. <ref>https://www.grammarly.com/blog/present-perfect-continuous-tense/</ref>

Example: I’ve been decorating the house this summer. The focus is on the action – decorating – and the action is unfinished. <ref>https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/quick-grammar/present-perfect-simple-and-present-perfect-continuous</ref>

== Adverbs for Present Perfect ==

The present perfect tense is commonly used with the indefinite time adverbs '''never''', '''ever''', '''before''', '''yet''', '''already'''.<ref>https://www.englishgrammar.org/time-adverbs-present-perfect-tense/</ref>

* Have you '''ever''' been to the USA?
* I have '''never''' seen a kangaroo.
* I have seen her '''before'''.
* They have '''already''' arrived.
* She has not received the parcel '''yet'''.

== Stative Verbs ==

A stative verb is a verb used primarily to describe a state or situation as opposed to an action or process. Common examples include be, have, like, seem, prefer, understand, doubt, and know. Also known as a stative, state verb, or static verb. Contrast this with a dynamic verb. Stative verbs usually don't occur in the '''progressive aspect''' or '''the imperative mood'''. <ref>https://www.thoughtco.com/stative-verb-1692139</ref>


List of stative verbs: <ref name="perfect-english-stative">http://www.perfect-english-grammar.com/stative-verbs.html</ref>

* agree
* appear
* astonish
* be
* believe
* belong
* concern
* consist
* contain
* deny
* depend
* deserve
* disagree
* dislike
* doubt
* feel (=have an opinion)
* fit
* hate
* have
* hear
* imagine
* impress
* include
* involve
* know
* lack
* like
* look (=seem)
* love
* matter
* mean
* measure (=have length etc)
* mind
* need
* owe
* own
* please
* possess
* prefer
* promise
* realise
* recognise
* remember
* satisfy
* see
* seem
* smell
* sound
* suppose
* surprise
* taste
* think (=have an opinion)
* understand
* want
* weigh (=have weight)
* wish

Some verbs can be both stative and dynamic: <ref name="perfect-english-stative"></ref>

* be
* think
* have
* see
* taste

Examples of stative sentence: <ref name="perfect-english-stative"></ref>

# This soup '''tastes''' great
# The coffee '''tastes''' really bitter

Example of non-stative sentence (dynamic sentence): <ref name="perfect-english-stative"></ref>
# The chef is '''tasting''' the soup


== Past Perfect ==

The past perfect, also called the pluperfect, is a verb tense used to talk about actions that were completed before some point in the past. <ref>https://www.grammarly.com/blog/past-perfect/</ref>

We use the verb had and the past participle for the past perfect. <ref>https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/past-tense/past-perfect</ref>

Examples: <ref name="ef-past-perfect">http://www.ef.com/english-resources/english-grammar/past-perfect-tense/</ref>

# John '''had gone''' out when I arrived in the office.
# I '''had saved''' my document before the computer crashed.
# When they arrived we '''had already started''' cooking.
# He was very tired because he '''hadn't slept''' well.

In the examples above, it doesn't matter which event is mentioned first, the tense makes it clear which one happened first. <ref name="ef-past-perfect"></ref>

== Modals ==

Modal verbs are helping/auxiliary verbs that express ideas like '''ability''', '''permission''', '''possibility''', and '''necessity'''. One of the most important things to remember is that modal verbs are always combined with other verbs to show complete meanings, but combining correctly is often a challenge for English learners. This is because we have single-word modals ('''can''', '''could''', '''may''', '''might''', '''must''', '''shall''', '''should''', '''will''', '''would''') and phrasal modals ('''be able to''', '''be going to''', '''be supposed to''', '''had better''', '''have to''', '''have got to''', '''ought to''', '''used to'''). <ref>http://blog.improving-english.com/2014/05/understanding-single-word-modals-and.html</ref>

=== Phrasal Modals ===

Modal phrases (or semi-modals) are used to express the same things as modals, but are a combination of '''auxiliary verbs''' and the preposition '''to'''. <ref>http://www.gingersoftware.com/content/grammar-rules/verbs/modal-verbs/</ref>

# I '''have to''' go. <ref name="artsccr-ch11">http://arts-ccr-002.bham.ac.uk/ccr/patgram/ch11.html</ref>
# Maybe we '''ought to''' explore the mountain a little,' said Ginger to Steve <ref name="artsccr-ch11"></ref>
# He is '''not able to''' be with us <ref name="artsccr-ch11"></ref>
# It was '''supposed to''' last for a year and actually lasted eight. <ref name="artsccr-ch11"></ref>
# He '''used to''' help us <ref name="eslcafe-modal-v1">http://www.eslcafe.com/grammar/understanding_and_using_modal_verbs01.html</ref>
# He's '''got to''' help us <ref name="eslcafe-modal-v1"></ref> 
# He's '''going to''' help us <ref name="eslcafe-modal-v1"></ref> 
# He's '''able to''' help us <ref name="eslcafe-modal-v1"></ref> 
# He '''had better''' help us <ref name="eslcafe-modal-v1"></ref>

=== Ability Modals ===

We use '''can''', '''be able to''' and '''could''' to show that someone has (or doesn’t have) an ability to do something: <ref>http://web2.uvcs.uvic.ca/elc/studyzone/330/grammar/330-modals-ability.htm</ref>

{|
! style="text-align:left;"|Present/future ability
! style="text-align:left;"|Negative
|-
|Alan '''can''' swim well.
|Jackie '''cannot''' play piano.
|-
|I '''can''' meet you after school.	
|We '''can’t''' visit Vancouver this weekend.	
|-
|I '''am able to''' speak two languages.	
|I '''am not able to''' speak Arabic.	
|-
|Brenda '''is able to''' run quickly.	
|Stacey '''isn’t able to''' finish a marathon.	
|-
|You '''are able to''' program a computer.	
|We '''aren’t able to''' make a reservation tonight.	
|-
|}

=== Modals of Possibility ===

We use the modals '''could''', '''might''' and '''may''' to show that something is possible in the future, but not certain: <ref name="learnenglish-modals">https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/modal-verbs/certain-probable-or-possible</ref>

# They '''might''' come later. (= Perhaps/Maybe they will come later.)
# They '''may''' come by car. (= Perhaps/Maybe they will come by car.)
# If we don’t hurry we '''could''' be late. (= Perhaps/Maybe we will be late)

We use could have, might have and may have to show that something was possible now or at some time in the past: <ref name="learnenglish-modals"></ref>

# It’s ten o’clock. They '''might have''' arrived now.
# They '''could have''' arrived hours ago.

=== Advice Modals ===

Modal Verbs are used to give advice or suggestions. There are two modal verbs for advice: '''should''' and '''would''':  <ref name="learnenglish-advice">http://www.learnenglish-online.com/grammar/modals/advice.html</ref>

Subject + Should + Base Verb: Should is used for advice in the present: <ref name="learnenglish-advice"></ref>

# You should eat healthy food.
# You should exercise every day.

Should + Have + Past Participle: Should is used for advice in the past: <ref name="learnenglish-advice"></ref>

# You should have gone to the party.
# She should have studied more often.

The modal verb "would" is used to give advice. In this situation, the speaker is giving hypothetical advice as if he/she were the listener: <ref name="learnenglish-advice"></ref>

# If I were you, I would return the book.
# If I were you, I would not wear that jacket.

=== Preference Modals ===

Would rather: <ref name="studyzone-modals-preference">http://web2.uvcs.uvic.ca/elc/studyzone/410/grammar/410-modals-of-preference.htm</ref>

# I '''would rather''' stay home.
# I '''would rather''' play tennis.

Would rather + than: <ref name="studyzone-modals-preference"></ref>

# I '''would rather''' go to the beach '''than''' study on such a nice day.
# I '''would rather''' be rich '''than''' poor.

Prefer: <ref name="studyzone-modals-preference"></ref>

# I '''prefer''' hot chocolate '''to''' tea.
# I '''prefer''' drinking hot chocolate '''to''' drinking tea.
# I '''prefer''' to drink hot chocolate '''rather than''' drink tea.

Would prefer: <ref name="studyzone-modals-preference"></ref>

# '''Would''' you '''prefer''' spaghetti '''or''' fish for dinner?
# '''Would''' you '''prefer''' to catch a bus '''or''' take a taxi home after the party?

=== Modals of Impossibility ===

We use the negative '''can’t''' or '''cannot''' to show that something is impossible: <ref name="learnenglish-modals"></ref>

# That '''can’t''' be true.
# You '''cannot''' be serious.

We use '''couldn’t/could''' not to talk about the past: <ref name="learnenglish-modals"></ref>

# We knew it '''could not''' be true.
# He was obviously joking. He '''could not''' be serious.

== Adjectives ==

Adjectives are words that describe the qualities or states of being of nouns: enormous, doglike, silly, yellow, fun, fast. They can also describe the quantity of nouns: many, few, millions, eleven. <ref>https://www.grammarly.com/blog/adjective/</ref>

# They have a '''beautiful''' house.<ref>https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/adjectives</ref>
# The '''unhappiest''', '''richest''' man. <ref>http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/adjectives.htm</ref>
# A '''red''' apple. <ref>https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/grammar/word-classes/adjectives</ref>

=== Adjective Participles ===

Some '''participles''' can be used as adjectives in either the '''present''' or '''past''' form. '''Present Participle (-ing)''' is used to describe something or someone. '''Past Participle (-ed)''' is used to describe how people feel about something or someone:  <ref name="ecenglish-adjective-participle">https://www.ecenglish.com/learnenglish/lessons/ing-or-ed-participles-adjectives</ref>

# I watched an '''interesting''' TV about American history last night. <ref name="ecenglish-adjective-participle"></ref>
# This film is '''boring'''. Let's stop watching it. <ref name="ecenglish-adjective-participle"></ref>
# I'm '''interested''' in American history. <ref name="ecenglish-adjective-participle"></ref>
# I'm '''bored''' of my job. I want to find another one. <ref name="ecenglish-adjective-participle"></ref>
# I'm '''bored''' of my job. I want to find another one. <ref name="perfect-english-adjective-participle">http://www.perfect-english-grammar.com/participle-adjectives.html</ref>
# I was really '''bored''' during the flight. <ref name="perfect-english-adjective-participle"></ref>
# She's '''interested''' in history. <ref name="perfect-english-adjective-participle"></ref>
# John's '''frightened''' of spiders. <ref name="perfect-english-adjective-participle"></ref>
# It was such a long, '''boring''' flight. <ref name="perfect-english-adjective-participle"></ref>
# I read a really '''interesting''' book about history. <ref name="perfect-english-adjective-participle"></ref>
# Many people find spiders '''frightening'''. <ref name="perfect-english-adjective-participle"></ref>

=== Adjective Clauses ===

Adjectives are not always single words. Sometimes they are clauses. For example: <ref>http://www.pitt.edu/~atteberr/comp/0150/grammar/adjclauses.html</ref>

* Students '''who are intelligent''' understand adjectives.

Adjective clauses begin with words such as '''that''', '''when''', '''where''', '''who''', '''whom''', '''whose''', '''which''', and '''why'''. <ref>http://www.k12reader.com/term/adjective-clause/</ref>

Examples of adjective clauses: <ref>http://examples.yourdictionary.com/example-adjective-clauses.html</ref>

# Pizza, '''which most people love''', is not very healthy.
# The people '''whose names are on the list''' will go to camp.
# Grandpa remembers the old days '''when there was no television'''. 
# Fruit '''that is grown organically''' is expensive.
# Eco-friendly cars '''that run on electricity''' save gas.
# I know someone '''whose father served in World War II'''.
# Making noise when he eats is the main reason '''why Sue does not like to eat with her brother'''.
# The kids '''who were called first''' will have the best chance of getting a seat.
# I enjoy telling people about Janet Evanovich '''whose latest book was fantastic'''.
# The people '''waiting all night outside the Apple store''' are trying to purchase a new iPhone.
# "He '''who can no longer pause to wonder and stand rapt in awe''' is as good as dead." - Albert Einstein
# "Those '''who do not complain''' are never pitied." - Jane Austen
# "People demand freedom of speech to make up for the freedom of thought '''which they avoid'''." - Søren Kierkegaard
# "Never go to a doctor '''whose office plants have died'''." - Erma Bombeck

=== Adjective Clauses with Subject Pronouns ===

This sentences are made with the use of '''subject pronouns''' and '''subject relative pronouns'''.

Here is a list of '''subject pronouns''': '''I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they'''. <ref>http://www.grammar.cl/english/subject-pronouns.htm</ref>

And here is a list of '''subject relative pronouns''': <ref name="englishcurrent-adjective-clause-pronouns">http://www.englishcurrent.com/grammar/study-adjective-clauses-relative-pronouns-exercises/</ref>

{|
! Relative pronoun
! Used for people
! Used for things
|-
| '''who''' || yes || no
|-
| '''that''' || yes || yes
|-
| '''which''' || no || yes
|-
|}

To understand how this kind of adjective clause is formed take a look at these two sentences: <ref name="englishcurrent-adjective-clause-pronouns"></ref>

# The '''woman''' is in my class.  
# '''She''' likes tennis.

In the sentences above we have the subject '''she'''. Using the relative pronoun '''who''' or '''that''' we can make an adjective clause with subject pronoun:

# The woman '''who likes tennis''' is in my class. 
# The woman '''that likes tennis''' is in my class.

=== Adjective Clauses with Object Pronouns ===

This sentences are made with the use of '''object pronouns''' and '''object relative pronouns'''.

Here is a list of object pronouns: '''Me, you, him, her, it, us, them'''. <ref>http://www.gingersoftware.com/content/grammar-rules/pronouns-2/object-pronouns/</ref>

Here is a list of '''object relative pronouns''': <ref name="englishcurrent-adjective-clause-pronouns"></ref>

{|
! Relative pronoun
! Used for people
! Used for things
|-
| '''who/whom''' || yes || no
|-
| '''that''' || yes || yes
|-
| '''nothing''' || yes || yes
|-
| '''which''' || no || yes
|-
|}

To understand how it works, look at the following sentences: <ref name="englishcurrent-adjective-clause-pronouns"></ref>

# The '''woman''' is in my class. 
# I like '''her'''.

These can be reduced to one of the following adjective clauses with object pronoun: <ref name="englishcurrent-adjective-clause-pronouns"></ref>

# The woman '''whom I like''' is in my class. 
# The woman '''who I like''' is in my class. 
# The woman '''that I like''' is in my class.

=== Adjective Clauses with the Possessive ===

In addition to subject- and object-pattern adjective clauses, there are also adjective clauses with '''whose'''. In clauses of this type, '''whose''' shows '''possession'''. It is always combined with a noun or noun phrase. For example, consider these two sentences: <ref>http://www.eslcafe.com/grammar/adjective_clauses06.html</ref>

# The people will be glad to help you.
# The people's names are on this list. 

These can be rewritten using '''possessive adjective clause''':

# The people '''whose names are on this list''' will be glad to help you.

'''Whose''' can be used for people and things. <ref>https://staff.washington.edu/marynell/grammar/ADJCL.html</ref>

=== Adjective Clauses with Prepositions ===

Many common verbs are followed by prepositions before their object. A partial list includes verbs such as: <ref name="portlandenglish-adj-clause-preposition">http://portlandenglish.edu/blog/relative-clauses-prepositions/</ref>

# think '''about'''
# work '''with'''
# go '''to'''
# speak '''with'''
# look '''for'''
# ride '''on'''
# pay '''for'''
# worry '''about'''
# live '''with'''
# care '''about'''
# write '''about'''
# look '''at'''

Given that, consider the following sentences: <ref name="portlandenglish-adj-clause-preposition"></ref>

# I am '''looking at''' a woman.
# She is '''looking at''' the water.

If you want to turn it to adjective clauses, the preposition must be kept: <ref name="portlandenglish-adj-clause-preposition"></ref>

# The woman '''at whom I am looking''' is sitting near the ocean.
# The water '''at which she is looking''' is blue.

The sentences can also be written in these less formal ways: <ref name="portlandenglish-adj-clause-preposition"></ref>

# The woman '''who I am looking at''' is sitting near the ocean.
# The woman '''that I am looking at''' is sitting near the ocean.
# The woman '''I am looking at''' is sitting near the ocean.
# The water '''which she is looking at''' is blue.
# The water '''that she is looking at''' is blue.
# The water '''she is looking at''' is blue.

=== Adjective Clauses with Where ===

Adjective clauses beginning with where add information about a '''place'''. Consider these two sentences: <ref name="eslcafe-adj-clause-where-when">http://www.eslcafe.com/grammar/adjective_clauses07.html</ref>

# The building is on Central Avenue.
# Lena works in the building.

Rewriting as an adjective clause with where: <ref name="eslcafe-adj-clause-where-when"></ref>

# The building '''where Lena works''' is on Central Avenue.

=== Adjective Clauses with When ===

Adjective clauses beginning with '''when''' add information about a '''time'''. Consider these two sentences: <ref name="eslcafe-adj-clause-where-when"></ref>

# I'll always remember the day.
# We met on the day. 

Rewriting as an adjective clause with when: <ref name="eslcafe-adj-clause-where-when"></ref>

# I'll always remember the day '''when we met'''.

=== Reduced Adjective Clauses ===

You may remove the relative pronoun and reduce your sentence in certain conditions: <ref name="grammarbank-red-rel-clause"></ref>
# The man '''who wants''' to talk to you is waiting for you.
# The man '''wanting''' to talk to you is waiting for you.

==== Reduction to Participle ====

'''a) Present participle''' (simultaneous) <ref name="grammarbank-red-rel-clause"></ref>
# We stood on the bridge '''which connects''' the two halves of the city.
# We stood on the bridge '''connecting''' the two halves of the city.

'''b) Past participle''' (passive simultaneous) <ref name="grammarbank-red-rel-clause"></ref>
# The boy '''who was attacked''' by a dog was taken to hospital.
# The boy '''attacked''' by a dog was taken to hospital. 

'''c) Perfect participle''' (explaining sth. happened before the others) <ref name="grammarbank-red-rel-clause"></ref>
# Jenna, '''who has lived''' in Florida for 20 years, has gone through several hurricanes.
# Jenna, '''having lived''' in Florida for 20 years, has gone through several hurricanes.

'''d) Perfect Passive Participle''' (explaining sth. happened before the others) <ref name="grammarbank-red-rel-clause"></ref>
# Usain Bolt, '''who had been disqualified''' from the men’s 100m final after a false start, made no such mistake in the 200m.
# Usain Bolt, '''having been disqualified''' from the men’s 100m final after a false start, made no such mistake in the 200m.

==== Reduction to Preposition ====

Adjective clauses can often be reduced to phrases, but the relative pronoun must be the subject of the verb in the adjective clause. 

Example 1: <ref name="thewindlike-red-adj-appositive"></ref>
# Did you see the book '''that is''' on the table?
# Did you see the book on the table?

Example 2: <ref name="thewindlike-red-adj-appositive"></ref>
# She hasn't finished her paragraph '''which is''' about her best friend yet.
# She hasn't finished her paragraph about her best friend yet.

==== Reduction to Appositive ====

Example 1: <ref name="thewindlike-red-adj-appositive">http://thewindlike.blogspot.com.br/2011/11/reduced-adjective-clauses.html</ref>
# You '''who are''' students should plan about your future jobs.
# You students should plan about your future jobs.

Example 2: <ref name="thewindlike-red-adj-appositive"></ref>
# Piseth, '''who is a curriculum developer''', has been working very hard.
# Piseth, '''a curriculum developer''', has been working very hard.

==== Reduction by omitting Relative Pronoun ====

Example 1: <ref name="grammarbank-red-rel-clause">http://www.grammarbank.com/reduced-relative-clauses.html</ref>
# I will talk to a consultant '''whom''' I met at the party.
# I will talk to a consultant I met at the party.

Example 2: <ref name="grammarbank-red-rel-clause"></ref>
# We will start our project '''which''' we finalized it last week soon.
# We will start our project we finalized it last week soon.

==== Reduction by omitting Relative Pronoun + To be ====

Example 1: <ref name="grammarbank-red-rel-clause"></ref>
# The car '''which is''' parked next to mine is very expensive.
# The car parked next to mine is very expensive.

Example 2: <ref name="grammarbank-red-rel-clause"></ref>
# Hamlet, '''which was''' written by Shakespeare sometime in the early 1600s, is among the classics.
# Hamlet, written by Shakespeare sometime in the early 1600s, is among the classics.

==== Reduction to With or Without ====

When the verb “have” meaning possession, we can omit relative pronoun and “have” and use with(+) or without(-): <ref name="grammarbank-red-rel-clause"></ref>

Example 1: <ref name="grammarbank-red-rel-clause"></ref>
# Students '''who have''' enough math and English skills will be admitted.
# Students '''with''' enough math and English skills will be admitted.

Example 2: <ref name="grammarbank-red-rel-clause"></ref>
# People '''who don’t have''' their ID cards can not get in.
# People '''without''' their ID cards can not get in.

=== Appositives ===

Appositives are two words or word groups which mean the same thing and are placed together. Appositives identify or explain the nouns or pronouns which they modify: <ref name="cwsillinois-appositives">http://www.cws.illinois.edu/workshop/writers/appositives/</ref>

# Our teacher, '''Professor Lamanna''', loves grammar. <ref name="cwsillinois-appositives"></ref>

We can say that "Professor Lamanna" is an appositive or is in apposition to "our teacher." "Professor Lamanna" identifies or explains "teacher.'

Appositives can be essential or nonessential. If the appositive is necessary for the meaning of the sentence, then it is essential. This means that it cannot be left out. If the appositive is not essential for the meaning of the sentence, and it could be left out, then it is nonessential. Nonessential appositives should be set apart from the sentence with commas. Essential appositives are not set off with commas. <ref>http://www.softschools.com/examples/grammar/appositives_examples/119/</ref>

Examples: <ref>http://www.write.com/writing-guides/general-writing/grammar/appositives/</ref>

# The long-time U.S. senator '''Ted Kennedy''' was known for his oratorical skills and his charisma.
# Ted Kennedy, '''a long-time U.S. senator''', was known for his oratorical skills and his charisma.
# The novel '''“The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo”''' was a great read.
# Starbucks, '''one of the best places for coffee in town''', is always busy.
# The Great Depression, '''a time of great strife for many Americans, one of the nation’s toughest non-military challenges''', affected many of those who lived through it for the rest of their lives.

An appositive identifies, defines or renames a noun or pronoun. This is the main difference between appositive and adjective clause. <ref>http://pediaa.com/difference-between-appositive-and-adjective-clause/</ref>

== Comparatives and Superlatives ==

=== Comparative adjectives ===

Commonly, adjectives that contain only one syllable or end in 'y' use 'er' to form comparatives and 'est' to form superlatives. For adjectives ending in y, change the 'y' to 'i' before adding the 'er' or 'est'. Adjectives with two or more syllables do not change but instead add more to form comparatives and most to form superlatives: <ref>http://pt.talkenglish.com/grammar/comparative-superlative-adjectives.aspx</ref>

# old – older – oldest
# young – younger – youngest
# pretty – prettier – prettiest
# long – longer – longest
# short – shorter – shortest
# bright – brighter – brightest
# close – closer – closest
# happy – happier - happiest
# respectable – more respectable – most respectable
# beautiful – more beautiful – most beautiful
# preferable – more preferable – most preferable
# hardworking – more hardworking – most hardworking

We use comparative adjectives to describe people and things: <ref>https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/adjectives/comparative-and-superlative-adjectives</ref>

# This car is certainly '''better''' but it’s much '''more expensive'''.
# I’m feeling '''happier''' now.
# We need a '''bigger''' garden

=== Comparative with than ===

We use than when we want to compare one thing with another: <ref>https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/adjectives/comparative-and-superlative-adjectives</ref>

# She is two years '''older than''' me.
# New York is much '''bigger than''' Boston.
# He is a '''better''' player than''' Ronaldo.
# France is a '''bigger''' country '''than''' Britain.

=== Comparative with as ===

We use as + adjective/adverb + as to make comparisons when the things we are comparing are equal in some way: <ref>https://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/as-and-as-expressions/as-as</ref>

# The world’s biggest bull is '''as''' big '''as''' a small elephant.
# The weather this summer is '''as''' bad '''as''' last year. It hasn’t stopped raining for weeks.
# You have to unwrap it '''as''' carefully '''as''' you can. It’s quite fragile.

=== Superlative ===

In the superlative you talk about one thing only and how it is the best, worst, etc. You do not compare two things: <ref>http://esl.fis.edu/grammar/rules/comp.htm</ref>

# My sister is '''the tallest''' in our family.
# Yesterday was '''the coldest''' day of the year so far.
# The richest people are not always '''the happiest'''.
# Which do you think is '''the easiest''' language to learn?
# She's '''the luckiest''' person I know.
# '''The most boring''' thing about ESL class is doing grammar exercises.
# My sister is '''the most careful''' person I know.
# Albert Einstein was '''the most intelligent''' person in history.
# You are '''the most irritating''' person I have ever met!

== Countable and Uncountable nouns ==

A count noun is one that can be expressed in plural form, usually with an "s." For example, "cat—cats," "season—seasons," "student—students." <ref name="owl-countable-uncountable">https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/541/1/</ref>

A noncount noun is one that usually cannot be expressed in a plural form. For example, "milk," "water," "air," "money," "food." Usually, you can't say, "He had many moneys." <ref name="owl-countable-uncountable"></ref>

== Quantifiers ==

Quantifiers are adjectives and adjectival phrases that give approximate or specific answers to the questions "How much?" and "How many?" <ref>http://www.ef.com/english-resources/english-grammar/quantifiers/</ref>

Quantifiers can be used with both countable and uncountable nouns. <ref>http://www.myenglishpages.com/site_php_files/grammar-lesson-quantifiers.php</ref>

'''With Uncountable Nouns'''
* much
* a little/little/very little *
* a bit (of)
* a great deal of
* a large amount of
* a large quantity of

'''With Both'''
* all
* enough
* more/most
* less/least
* no/none
* not any
* some
* any
* a lot of
* lots of
* plenty of

'''With Countable Nouns'''
* many
* a few/few/very few **
* a number (of)
* several
* a large number of
* a great number of
* a majority of

'''Examples:''' <ref>https://magoosh.com/toefl/2015/quantity-adjectives-with-countable-and-non-countable-nouns/</ref>

# There are '''many''' people living in the '''many''' houses on that street
# Because there was so '''little''' fire, people noticed '''little''' smoke.
# He put '''lots of''' chocolate chips and '''lots of''' sugar into the cookie dough.
# If you put a '''little bit''' more effort into this, I’m sure you can have a '''little bit''' more success.
# They put '''plenty of''' thought into their plans, and were able to think of '''plenty of''' ideas.

== Definite and Indefinite Articles ==

The definite article '''the''' is used to indicate a noun that is definite or has been previously specified in the context: <ref name="talkenglish-a-an">http://www.talkenglish.com/grammar/articles.aspx</ref>

# Please close '''the''' door.
# I like '''the''' clothes you gave me.

The indefinite articles '''a''' and '''an''' are used before singular nouns that are unspecified and also before number collectives and some numbers: <ref name="talkenglish-a-an"></ref>

# '''a''' pencil
# '''an''' orange
# '''a''' dozen
# '''a''' gallon

== Gerunds and Infinitives ==

An '''infinitive''' is the verb form that has “to” at the beginning. For example, “to do,” “to sleep,” “to love” and “to create.” '''Gerunds''' are formed by adding “-ing” to the verb: “sleeping,” “drawing,” “swimming.” But they are not the “-ing” verb forms that you see in the present or past continuous tense. They look the same, but gerunds are actually verb forms used as nouns. <ref>https://www.ecenglish.com/learnenglish/lessons/gerund-vs-infinitive-practice</ref>

It can be a little difficult to know when to use gerunds and infinitives. <ref>http://www.perfect-english-grammar.com/gerunds-and-infinitives.html</ref>

Here’s an example. Which sentence is correct? 

# I suggested '''going''' to dinner.
# I suggested '''to go''' to dinner.

Sentence one, with the gerund, is correct. “I suggested going to dinner.” Why? You can only use a gerund after the verb “suggest.” <ref>https://learningenglish.voanews.com/a/everyday-grammar-gerunds-infinitives/2722827.html</ref>

'''List of commons verbs: ''' <ref>https://www.engvid.com/english-resource/verbs-followed-by-gerunds-and-infinitives/</ref>

Common verbs '''followed by a gerund''': abhor, acknowledge, admit, advise, allow, anticipate, appreciate, avoid, be worth, can’t help, celebrate, confess, consider, defend, delay, detest, discontinue, discuss, dislike, dispute, dread, endure, enjoy, escape, evade, explain, fancy, fear, feel like, feign, finish, forgive, give up (stop), keep (continue), keep on, mention, mind (object to), miss, necessitate, omit, permit, picture, postpone, practice, prevent, put off, recall, recollect, recommend, report, resent, resist, resume, risk, shirk, shun, suggest, support, tolerate, understand, urge, warrant

Common verbs '''followed by an infinitive''': agree, appear, arrange, ask, attempt, beg, can/can’t afford, can/can’t wait, care, chance, choose, claim, come, consent, dare, decide, demand, deserve, determine, elect, endeavor, expect, fail, get, grow (up), guarantee, hesitate, hope, hurry, incline, learn, manage, mean, need, neglect, offer, pay, plan, prepare, pretend, profess, promise, prove, refuse, remain, request, resolve, say, seek, seem, shudder, strive, struggle, swear, tend, threaten, turn out, venture, volunteer, wait, want, wish, would like, yearn

Common verbs '''followed by a gerund or infinitive''' with little to no change in meaning: begin, can’t bear, can’t stand, continue, hate, like, love, prefer, propose, start

== Requests and Permissions ==

The modal verbs '''may''', '''could''', '''will''', '''would''' are used in making polite requests in speech and writing, in communication with strangers and with people you know. '''Can''' is generally used in informal requests, mostly in conversation with friends and family: <ref>http://usefulenglish.ru/grammar/requests-and-permission</ref>

# '''May''' I borrow your pen, please?
# '''Could''' I speak to Tom Lee, please?
# '''Could''' you help me with this report?
# '''Can''' I borrow your pen, please?
# '''Can''' you tell me where the bank is, please?
# '''Will''' you please be quiet?
# '''Would''' you please ask her to call me?

'''Can''' is used to make basic requests from a friend or co-worker. It is often used for small things. <ref name="learnenglish-requests">http://www.learnenglish-online.com/grammar/modals/requests.html</ref>

'''Could''' is more polite than can, but has the same function. <ref name="learnenglish-requests"></ref>

'''Would''' is used to make polite requests in English. <ref name="learnenglish-requests"></ref>

'''Will''' is similar to would, but is a more casual way of making a request. "Will" would be more with people who you have a comfortable, common relationship with. <ref>https://blog.abaenglish.com/requests-with-will-and-would/</ref>

'''May''' is used to politely ask for permission to do something. <ref>https://blog.oxforddictionaries.com/2013/04/05/may-or-might-whats-the-difference/</ref>

== Pronouns ==

=== Personal pronouns ===

A personal pronoun is a pronoun that is associated primarily with a particular person, in the grammatical sense. <ref>http://www.gingersoftware.com/content/grammar-rules/personal-pronouns/</ref>

{|
! Subject
! Object
|-
| I || me
|-
| you || you
|-
| he || him
|-
| she || her
|-
| it || it
|-
| we || us
|-
| you || you
|-
| they || them
|-
|}

Examples: <ref>https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/personal-pronouns</ref>

# '''I''' like your dress.
# '''You''' are late.
# This is Jack. '''He'''’s my brother. '''I''' don’t think '''you''' have met '''him'''.

=== Possessive pronouns ===

Possessive pronouns include my, mine, our, ours, its, his, her, hers, their, theirs, your and yours - all words that demonstrate ownership. <ref name="yourdic-poss-pronoun">http://examples.yourdictionary.com/examples-of-possessive-pronouns.html</ref>

Table of possessive pronouns: <ref>https://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/pronouns/pronouns-possessive-my-mine-your-yours-etc</ref>
{|
! Personal pronoun
! Possessive determiner
! Possessive pronoun
|-
| I || my || mine
|-
| you (singular and plural) || your || yours
|-
| he || his || his
|-
| she || her || hers
|-
| it || its || its
|-
| we || our || ours
|-
| they || their || theirs
|-
| one || one’s || one’s
|-
|}

Examples of possessive pronouns: <ref name="yourdic-poss-pronoun"></ref>
# The kids are '''yours''' and '''mine'''.
# The house is '''theirs''' and '''its''' paint is flaking.
# The money was really '''theirs''' for the taking.
# We shall finally have what is rightfully '''ours'''.
# '''Their''' mother gets along well with '''yours'''.
# What's '''mine''' is '''yours''', '''my''' friend.
# The dog is '''mine'''.
# The cat is '''yours'''.
# The ring is '''hers'''.
# The bag is '''theirs'''.

=== Reflexive pronouns ===

=== Indefinite pronouns ===

== Adjectives and Adverbs ==
== Nouns and Verbs ==
== Prepositions ==
== Phrasal Verbs ==
== Collocations ==


== References ==
<references />

[[Category: Intermediate Grammar Project - UCI]]